Structural & Functional Grammar

1. Sentence Structure

Definition:

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete meaning.

Elements:

Subject (Doer)

Predicate (Action/Information)

👉 She (S) is reading a book (P).

Types:

Declarative – statement

Interrogative – question

Imperative – order/request

Exclamatory – emotion

Structural Types:

Simple

Compound

Complex

Compound-Complex

 2. Modifiers

Definition:

Words/phrases that add description.

Types:

Adjective Modifier → noun को modify करता है

Adverb Modifier → verb/adjective को modify करता है

Common Errors:

Dangling Modifier

Misplaced Modifier

👉 Incorrect: Running fast, the bus was missed.

👉 Correct: Running fast, I missed the bus.

🔶 3. Connecting Words (Linkers)

Types:

Coordinating Conjunctions

(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)

Subordinating Conjunctions

(because, although, if, when, unless)

Correlative Conjunctions

(either…or, neither…nor)

🔶 4. Verbals (Non-Finite Verbs)

Definition:

Verbs that don’t act as main verb.

Types:

Infinitive → to + V1

👉 To learn is important.

Gerund → V+ing (noun)

👉 Swimming is fun.

Participle → adjective form

👉 A crying baby

🔶 5. Phrases and Clauses

Phrase:

No subject + verb

👉 In the garden

Clause:

Has subject + verb

👉 She is playing

Types of Clauses:

Noun Clause → acts as noun

Adjective Clause → describes noun

Adverb Clause → describes verb

🔶 6. Case (Forms of Nouns/Pronouns)

Types:

Subjective Case → I, he, she

Objective Case → me, him, her

Possessive Case → my, his, her

👉 She gave him her book.

🔶 7. Correct Usage of Parts of Speech

(A) Nouns

Proper, Common, Abstract, Collective

👉 Honesty is the best policy.

(B) Pronouns

Must match antecedent

👉 Each student has his/her book.

(C) Adjectives

Degree: Positive, Comparative, Superlative

👉 tall – taller – tallest

(D) Adverbs

Types: manner, time, place, degree

(E) Articles

A/An → general

The → specific

🔶 8. Agreement of Verb with Subject (SVA)

Key Rules:

Singular subject → singular verb

Plural subject → plural verb

Indefinite pronouns → singular

Collective nouns → singular/plural (context)

👉 The team is winning.

👉 The team are arguing.

🔶 9. Tense

Types:

Present (4 forms)

Past (4 forms)

Future

👉 She writes / is writing / has written

🔶 10. Mood

Types:

Indicative → fact

Imperative → order

Subjunctive → wish/condition

👉 If I were you…

🔶 11. Voice

Types:

Active Voice

Passive Voice

👉 Ram wrote a letter.

👉 A letter was written by Ram.

🔶 12. Writing Effective Sentences

Key Features:

✔ Clarity

✔ Accuracy

✔ Brevity

Tips:

Avoid repetition

Use proper punctuation

Maintain logical order

🔶 13. Basic Sentence Faults

Types:

Sentence Fragment

❌ Because she was tired.

Run-on Sentence

❌ She is tired she slept.

Subject-Verb Error

❌ She go to school.

Wrong Modifier

❌ He almost drove the car for 6 hours.